Two Stage Forming of Resistive Random Access Memory Cells

ABSTRACT

Provided are memory cells, such as resistive random access memory (ReRAM) cells, each cell having multiple metal oxide layers formed from different oxides, and methods of manipulating and fabricating these cells. Two metal oxides used in the same cell have different dielectric constants, such as silicon oxide and hafnium oxide. The memory cell may include electrodes having different metals. Diffusivity of these metals into interfacing metal oxide layers may be different. Specifically, the lower-k oxide may be less prone to diffusion of the metal from the interfacing electrode than the higher-k oxide. The memory cell may be formed to different stable resistive levels and then resistively switched at these levels. Each level may use a different switching power. The switching level may be selected a user after fabrication of the cell and in, some embodiments, may be changed, for example, after switching the cell at a particular level.

BACKGROUND

Nonvolatile memory is computer memory capable of retaining storedinformation even when unpowered. Non-volatile memory is typically usedfor secondary storage or long-term persistent storage and may be used inaddition to volatile memory, which loses the stored information whenunpowered. Nonvolatile memory can be permanently integrated intocomputer systems (e.g., solid state hard drives) or can take the form ofremovable and easily transportable memory cards (e.g., USB flashdrives). Nonvolatile memory is becoming more popular because of itssmall size/high density, low power consumption, fast reading rates andwriting rates, retention, and other characteristics.

Flash memory is a common type of nonvolatile memory because of its highdensity and low fabrication costs. Flash memory is a transistor-basedmemory device that uses multiple gates per transistor and quantumtunneling for storing the information on its memory device. Flash memoryuses a block-access architecture that can result in long access, erase,and write times. Flash memory also suffers from low endurance, highpower consumption, and scaling limitations.

The constantly increasing speed of electronic devices and storage demanddrive new requirements for nonvolatile memory. For example, nonvolatilememory is expected to replace hard drives in many new computer systems.However, transistor-based flash memory is often inadequate to meet therequirements for nonvolatile memory. New types of memory, such asresistive random access memory, are being developed to meet thesedemands and requirements.

SUMMARY

Provided are memory cells, such as resistive random access memory(ReRAM) cells, each cell having multiple metal oxide layers formed fromdifferent oxides, and methods of manipulating and fabricating thesecells. Specifically, a memory cell includes a layer formed from a firstmetal oxide and another layer formed from a second metal oxide having adifferent dielectric constant than the first metal oxide. In oneexample, one layer may be formed from silicon oxide, while another layermay be formed from hafnium oxide. Furthermore, the memory cell mayinclude electrodes having different metals. Diffusivity of one metal inone electrode into an interfacing metal oxide layer may be less thandiffusivity of the other metal in the other electrode into a metal oxidelayer interfacing this other electrode. Specifically, the lower-k oxidemay be less prone to diffusion of the metal from the interfacingelectrode than the higher-k oxide in the same cell. The memory cellhaving such structures may be formed to different stable resistivelevels and may switch at these levels by switching resistance of thecell between its low resistive state and high resistive state at eachone of these levels. Each level may use a different switching power.Furthermore, the memory cell may be programmed by a user to switch ateither one of these levels after fabrication of the cell. In someembodiments, the switching level may be changed.

In some embodiments, a memory cell includes a first layer, a secondlayer, a third layer, and a fourth layer. The first layer is operable asan electrode. The second layer includes a first oxide. The third layerincludes a second oxide. The fourth layer is operable as anotherelectrode. The second layer directly interfaces the first layer, whilethe third layer directly interfaces the fourth layer. The second andthird layers are disposed between the first layer and the fourth layer.The first layer includes a first metal, while the fourth layer comprisesa second metal. The diffusivity of the first metal into the second layeris less than diffusivity of the second metal into the third layer.Furthermore, the dielectric constant of the second oxide is greater thanthe dielectric constant of the first oxide.

In some embodiments, a combination of the second layer and the thirdlayer is operable to reversibly switch between a low resistive state anda high resistive state in response to applying a switching signal to thememory cell. This switching may be performed at different switchinglevels each associated with a different set of low resistive and highresistive states. For example, the combination of first and secondlayers is operable to form multiple low resistive states, eachassociated with a different switching level. The multiple low resistivestates are formed in response to applying different forming signals tothe memory cell. A forming step, during which a forming signal isapplied to the memory cell to bring the memory cell to a new level,should be distinguished from a switching step, during which a switchingsignal is applied to the ReRAM cell to change the resistive state of thememory cell within the same switching level. Applying a forming signalto the memory cell comprises maintaining a higher potential at the firstlayer than at the fourth layer, which reduces diffusion of the secondmetal into the third layer at least during the forming step.

In some embodiments, the first oxide is silicon oxide, while the secondoxide is hafnium oxide. The first oxide and the second oxide may besub-stoichiometric oxides. For example, the first oxide may be SiO_(x),wherein the second oxide may be HfO_(y), such that the values of both Xand Y are between 1.7 and 1.9. For purposes of this disclosure andunless specifically noted, the term “oxide” refers to bothstoichiometric oxides and sub-stoichiometric oxides.

In some embodiments, the first metal is one of tantalum, tungsten, orplatinum. The first layer may also include one or more of nitrogen andsilicon. For example, the first layer may be TaN, TaSiN, WN, WSiN, orcombinations thereof. In some embodiments, the second metal is titanium.The second layer may also include one or more of nitrogen and silicon.For example, the first layer may be TiN or TiSiN.

In some embodiments, the memory cell also includes a fifth layeroperable to maintain a constant resistance when a switching signal or aforming signal is applied to the memory cell to reversibly switch acombination of the second layer and the third layer between a lowresistive state and a high resistive state. The fifth layer may bereferred to as an embedded resistor. The fifth layer may be disposedbetween the second layer and the third layer.

In some embodiments, the thickness of the second layer is less than thethickness of the third layer. For example, the thickness of the secondlayer may be between about 25% and 75% of the third layer thickness, ormore specifically, between about 25% and 50% of the third layerthickness.

In some embodiments, the dielectric constant of the second oxide is atleast three times greater than the dielectric constant of the firstoxide. For example, the dielectric constant of the second oxide may bebetween about 15 and 30, while the dielectric constant of the firstoxide may be between about 3 and 10. The dielectric constant differenceallows achieving different switching levels.

In some embodiments, the first metal is tantalum. The first layer alsoincludes nitrogen bound to the first metal. The first oxide includes oneor both of silicon oxide and aluminum oxide. The second oxide includeshafnium oxide. The second metal is titanium. The second layer alsoincludes nitrogen bound to the second metal.

Provided also is a method of manipulating a memory cell including afirst layer, second layer, third layer, and fourth layer. The firstlayer is operable as an electrode. The second layer includes a firstoxide. The third layer includes a second oxide. The fourth layer isoperable as an electrode. The second layer directly interfaces the firstlayer. The third layer directly interfaces the fourth layer. The firstlayer includes a first metal. The fourth layer includes a second metal.The diffusivity of the first metal into the second layer is less thandiffusivity of the second metal into the third layer. The second oxidehas a higher dielectric constant than the first oxide. The methodinvolves applying a first forming signal between the first layer and thefourth layer such that applying the first forming signal changes aresistance of the second layer to a first low resistance while theresistance of the third layer remains substantially the same. Applyingthe first forming signal involves applying a higher potential to thefirst layer than to the fourth layer. In other words, applying the firstforming signal changes the switching level of the memory cell. Thestarting switching level in this step may be an initial switching levelthat exists after fabrication of the cell, in which case this step maybe referred to as an initial forming step. It should be noted that thecell may be brought to a desired switching level in a single step or anumber of forming steps. For example, the cell may be subjected to anumber of forming steps without any switching (at any switching level)in between.

In some embodiments, the method also involves switching the resistanceof the second layer between the first low resistance and a first highresistance. The resistance of the second layer in the first lowresistance is less than the resistance of the second layer in the firsthigh resistance. The resistance of the third layer may not change duringthese switching steps if the third layer has not been previously formed.Alternatively, the resistance of the third layer may change togetherwith the resistance of the second layer during these switching steps. Assuch, each switching level depends on the previous forming step and thestate of each oxide containing layer at the end of this forming step.

In some embodiments, the method also involves applying a second formingsignal between the first layer and the fourth layer. Applying the secondforming signal changes a resistance of the third layer to a second lowresistance. Applying the second forming signal involves applying ahigher potential to the first layer than to the fourth layer. Applyingthe second forming signal further changes a resistance of the secondlayer to a third low resistance such that the third low resistance isless than the first low resistance. The second forming signal mayapplied immediately after applying the first forming signal therebybringing the cell from the first switching level to the second switchinglevel. Alternatively, the cell may be switched at the first switchinglevel (e.g., switched between its two resistive switching statescorresponding to the first switching level) before applying the secondforming signal.

In some embodiments, the method also involves switching the resistanceof the third layer between the second low resistance and a second highresistance. In other words, the cell may be switched at the secondswitching level. The resistance of the third layer in the second lowresistance is less than the resistance of the third layer in the secondhigh resistance. Switching the resistance of the third layer from thesecond low resistance to the second high resistance corresponds toswitching the resistance of the second layer from the third lowresistance to a third high resistance corresponds. Switching theresistance of the third layer from the second high resistance to thesecond low resistance corresponds to switching the resistance of thesecond layer from the third high resistance to the third low resistancecorresponds. The resistance of the second layer in the third lowresistance is less than the resistance of the second layer in the thirdhigh resistance.

These and other embodiments are described further below with referenceto the figures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

To facilitate understanding, the same reference numerals have been used,where possible, to designate common components presented in the figures.The drawings are not to scale and the relative dimensions of variouselements in the drawings are depicted schematically and not necessarilyto scale. Various embodiments can readily be understood by consideringthe following detailed description in conjunction with the accompanyingdrawings.

FIG. 1A illustrates a plot of an electrical forming in a conventionaldielectric, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 1B illustrates a plot of an electrical forming in a ReRAM cellhaving two layers formed from different oxides having differentdielectric constants, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 2A illustrates a schematic representation of a ReRAM cell prior toinitial forming step, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIGS. 2B and 2C illustrate schematic representations of the ReRAM cellin its high resistive state (HRS) and low resistive state (LRS), inaccordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 2D illustrates a plot of a current passing through a unipolar ReRAMcell as a function of a voltage applied to the ReRAM cell, in accordancewith some embodiments.

FIG. 2E illustrates a plot of a current passing through a bipolar ReRAMcell as a function of a voltage applied to the ReRAM cell, in accordancewith some embodiments.

FIG. 3A illustrates a schematic representation of a ReRAM cell includingtwo layers formed from different oxides having different dielectricconstants, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 3B illustrates a schematic representation of another ReRAM cellincluding two layers formed from different oxides having differentdielectric constants and other layers disposed between these two oxideslayers, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 4 illustrates a process flowchart corresponding to a method ofmanipulating a ReRAM cell having multiple different switching levelsachieved by combining different oxides having different dielectricconstants in the ReRAM cell, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate schematic views of memory arrays includingmultiple ReRAM cells, in accordance with some embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

A detailed description of various embodiments is provided below alongwith accompanying figures. The detailed description is provided inconnection with such embodiments, but is not limited to any particularexample. The scope is limited only by the claims and numerousalternatives, modifications, and equivalents are encompassed. Numerousspecific details are set forth in the following description in order toprovide a thorough understanding. These details are provided for thepurpose of example and the described techniques may be practicedaccording to the claims without some or all of these specific details.For the purpose of clarity, technical material that is known in thetechnical fields related to the embodiments has not been described indetail to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the description.

Introduction

A ReRAM cell exhibiting resistive switching characteristics generallyincludes multiple layers formed into a stack, such as a“metal-insulator-metal” (MIM) stack. The stack includes two conductivelayers operable as electrodes. The layers are identified with letter “M”in the MIM stack and may include one or more metals or other types ofconductive materials, such as doped silicon. The stack also includes oneor more insulator layers identified as “I” in the MIM stack. The one ormore dielectric layers are configured to change their resistiveproperties when a switching signal is applied to the dielectric layersor, more generally, between the electrodes. Due to their variableresistance characteristics, the dielectric layers may be also referredto as a variable resistance layer. These changes in resistive propertiesare used to store data. For example, when two different resistive statesare identified (e.g., a high resistive state and a low resistive state)for a ReRAM cell, one state may be associated with a logic “zero”, whilethe other state may be associated with a logic “one” value. Similarapproaches may be used when three or more resistive states may beidentified for the same ReRAM cell leading to various multibitarchitectures.

In general, it is desirable to have more resistive states therebyincreasing the data storage capacity of ReRAM cells. For example, fourresistive states may be used to store two bits of data and so on.Furthermore, it may be desirable to have multiple pairs of differentresistive states that use different switching power, i.e., multipledifferent switching levels. For example, the same ReRAM cell may beconfigured, as further described below, to switch between a first pairof resistive states using a first power (at a first switching level) andbetween a second pair of resistive states using a second power level (ata second switching level). Switching powers needed to switch the cell atthese switching levels may be different. Furthermore, switching levelsmay have different characteristics, such as data retention. Differentswitching levels may be achieved by using different forming signals.Furthermore, the switching level of the cell may be changed. Forexample, a ReRAM cell may be first formed such that it can switch in thefirst switching level. This cell may be later formed again such that itcan now switch at the second switching level. In some embodiments, thecell may be switched back to the first switching level after it isbrought to the second switching level.

After a ReRAM cell is formed into a particular switching level, it maybe manipulated at this level by switching between a pair of distinctresistive states. The switching signal may be applied as series ofvoltage pulses and may be generally referred to as switching voltageprofiles or, more specifically, “set” voltage profiles and “reset”voltage profiles. For example, a switching voltage pulse may be used tochange (“set” or “reset”) the resistive state followed by a smallerreading voltage pulse to determine the current state of the ReRAM cellat that time. Unlike the switching voltage pulse, the reading pulse isspecifically configured to avoid changing the resistive state of theReRAM cell and is configured only to determine the current state. Theswitching pulse may be repeated if the desired resistive state is notreached. The switching pulses may alternate with the reading pulses forfeedback control. The switching pulses may vary from one to anotherbased on their potential (e.g., a gradual increase in the potential),duration, and other characteristics. The reading pulses may be the same.The process of applying the switching pulses and reading pulses maycontinue until the desired resistive state is reached.

Similar to resistive switching at a switching level, forming involvesapplying one or more voltage pluses to a ReRAM cell. As furtherdescribed below with reference to FIGS. 2A and 2B, forming is anelectrical forming process that occurs in one or more resistiveswitching layers of the ReRAM cell. An examples of a typical formingprocess is shown in FIG. 1A by a transition from Point 1 to Point 2.Before the ReRAM cell can be switched two resistive states, an initialconductive path is formed through at least one of the resistiveswitching layers. Later this conductive path is modified to achieveresistive switching. There are two modes of dielectric forming inresistive switching layers, which may be referred to as soft-forming andhard-forming. These two modes associated with different changes involtage and/or current during forming step. The hard forming may becharacterized by a large change in voltage and/or current during theforming transient. The soft forming may be characterized by much smallerchange of voltage and/or current during the forming. Even during thesoft forming, the leakage current increases and forms conductive paths.However, the density of these conductive paths after the soft forming ismuch less than after the hard forming. The soft forming paves the way tothe hard forming but only partially redistributes materials within theresistive switching layer. In contrast with the soft forming, the hardforming may occur after the soft forming due to, for example, thermalmeltdown and more dense conductive paths are formed during the hardforming. The hard forming generates more defects in comparison to thesoft forming. As such, more and larger conductive filaments are formedfrom defects during the hard forming resulting in much lower resistancethen when the soft forming is used.

Forming involves applying a strong electric field to the resistiveswitching layer, which brings the resistive switching layer close to thedielectric forming. The set step described below with reference to FIG.2B shows a conductive path made up of defects (e.g., trapped charges)formed between the two electrodes. The reset step described below withreference to FIG. 2C shows partial break of the conductive path formedin FIG. 2B. The set and reset switching steps may be repeated as show inFIG. 2B and FIG. 2C. As noted above, the density of these conductivepaths as well as other characteristics (e.g., the size) may be differentfor resistive switching layers that undergone the soft forming vs.resistive switching layers that undergone the hard forming. The formingprocess may be controlled by external circuitry and/or on chip circuitry(e.g., a selector transistor) to prevent over-programming and to bringthe cell into a desired switching level.

Forming process as well as overall performance of a ReRAM cell isaffected by materials used for resistive switching layers and, in someembodiments, electrodes. For example, different materials for multipleresistive switching layers in the same ReRAM cell may be selected. Theless diffusive electrode may interface the lower-k dielectric (e.g., alower-k oxide), while the more diffusive electrode may interface thehigher-k dielectric (e.g., a higher-k oxide). Specifically, thediffusivity of the first electrode to its contiguous layer (e.g.,lower-k oxide) is less than the diffusivity of the second electrode toits contiguous layer (e.g., higher-k oxide). The combination of multipleresistive switching layers between two different electrodes may providemultiple low resistive states that are stable depending on differentforming signals. Based on the orientation of the layers described above,the forming signals may be associated with a higher potential at thefirst electrode than the second electrode. Due to such potentialdifference on the two electrodes, the diffusion of metal ions from thefirst oxide to the second oxide may decrease. In general, the formingstrength decreases as the dielectric constant increases. Therefore, theforming in the first oxide (lower-k) may precede the forming in thesecond oxide (higher-k). To some extend this forming may be impacted bythe diffusion or, more specifically, by controlling the diffusion. Inaddition, considering that the lower-k oxide may potentially causetunneling leakage or intrinsic reliability concerns in the cell, thehigher-k oxide in the cell may act as barrier materials to preventharmful diffusion to neighboring layers.

A ReRAM cell including multiple resistive switching layers havingdifferent materials, in particular materials having different dielectricconstants, may undergo multiple electrical forming operations. Materialshaving higher dielectric constants generally have lower forming voltages(which sometimes may be referred to as breakdown voltage). For the samekind of oxide, addition of metal (and shifting further away from thestoichiometric oxide) will reduce the forming voltage. For example, astoichiometric silicon dioxide (SiO₂) has a breakdown field of about10-12 MV/cm. Adding silicon can reduce this breakdown field to about 6MV/cm.

For example, a ReRAM cell may include a hafnium oxide resistiveswitching layer and silicon oxide resistive switching layer disposedbetween a titanium nitride electrode and tantalum nitride electrode. Thetitanium nitride electrode may directly interface the hafnium oxideresistive switching layer, while the tantalum nitride electrode maydirectly interface the silicon oxide resistive switching layer. As such,the hafnium oxide resistive switching layer and silicon oxide resistiveswitching layer are connected in series. During forming step, thesilicon oxide resistive switching layer may form first because of itslower dielectric constant. Silicon oxide is more resistive than hafniumoxide and, as a result, will form first. During formation of siliconoxide, the voltage applied to hafnium oxide will increase causing it toform later. Specifically, the dielectric constant of silicon oxide isbetween about 3.5-4.5 depending on the stoichiometric ratio of siliconand oxygen, dopants, and other factors. The dielectric constant ofhafnium oxide is between about 15-20 also depending on thestoichiometric ratio of hafnium and oxygen, dopants, and other factors.The beginning of the silicon oxide forming is depicted with Point 3 inFIG. 1B.

Continuing the forming process may further reduce the resistance of thesilicon oxide layer by forming more conductive paths in the siliconoxide layer as shown by the transition from Point 3 to Point 4 in FIG.1B. As such, if Point 3 in FIG. 1B is the forming end point, then thesilicon oxide layer is generally unformed or partially formed resultingin ultra-low power (ULP) switching. As further described below withreference to FIGS. 2A and 2B, very few conductive paths exists at thispoint in the silicon oxide layer and these paths are relatively easy tobreak and reform during switching step. On the other hand, these pathsmay be unstable resulting in poor data retention. If better dataretention is needed, then the forming process may continue to Point 4 inFIG. 1B. At this point, the silicon oxide layer is mostly formed.However, the hafnium oxide layer may be substantially unformed leadingto low power (LP) switching. The LP switching may require more powerthan the ULP switching but still less power than switching at Point 5 orat Point 6 in FIG. 1B.

The abrupt change at the transition from Point 4 to Point 5 in FIG. 1Bcorresponds to forming of hafnium oxide. Specifically, at Point 5 inFIG. 1B both the hafnium oxide layer and silicon oxide layer are formedresulting in medium power (MP) switching. This state may be referred tosoft forming. If the forming process continues, both the hafnium oxidelayer and silicon oxide layer may be hard formed leading to high power(HP) switching as shown by Point 6 in FIG. 1B.

Various conditions of these forming and switching steps points may becontrolled by selecting specific materials for resistive switchinglayers and electrodes. Other factors influencing these conditionsinclude thicknesses of resistive switching layers, additional resistancefrom other components in a stack (e.g., an embedded resistor), andoutside of the stack (e.g., signal lines, external current steeringelements). A series of experiments have been conducted to determineimpact of some of these factors. For example, increasing the thicknessof the silicon oxide layer from 5 Angstroms to 10 Angstroms resulted inincrease of the current. It should be noted that the composition impactsthe breakdown field. The forming voltage is a product of the breakdownfield and thickness. For example, a 10 Angstrom thick silicon oxidelayer may have a forming voltage of about 3V, while a 30 Angstrom thickhafnium oxide layer may have a forming voltage of about 1V.

Another experiment compared a combination of titanium nitride andtantalum nitride electrodes to a combination of two tantalum nitrideelectrodes. The titanium nitride electrode was directly interfacing ahafnium oxide resistive switching layer. The change from the twotantalum nitride electrodes to the combination of titanium nitride andtantalum nitride electrodes resulted in an increase of forming currentby about 0.5V to 1V. Furthermore, ReRAM cells built with two tantalumnitride electrodes had more distinct multi-stage forming behavior thanReRAM cells built with the combination of titanium nitride and tantalumnitride electrodes. Without being restricted to any particular theory,it is believed that when a titanium nitride electrode directlyinterfaces with a hafnium oxide resistive switching layer, some titaniummay diffuse into the resistive switching layer.

In another experiment, both sets of ReRAM cells had titanium nitride andtantalum nitride electrodes with hafnium oxide and silicon oxideresistive switching layers disposed between these electrodes. However,in one set, the hafnium oxide resistive switching layer was directlyinterfacing the titanium nitride electrode (while the silicon oxideresistive switching layer was directly interfacing the tantalum nitrideelectrode), i.e., TiN/HfO_(x)/SiO_(x)/TaN cells. In other set, thesilicon oxide resistive switching layer was directly interfacing thetitanium nitride electrode (while the hafnium oxide resistive switchinglayer was directly interfacing the tantalum nitride electrode), i.e.,TiN/SiO_(x)/HfO_(x)/TaN cells. The TiN/HfO_(x)/SiO_(x)/TaN cells hadmore abrupt forming while the TiN/SiO_(x)/HfO_(x)/TaN cells had moregradual forming. Without being restricted to any particular theory, itis believed that diffusion of titanium hafnium inTiN/HfO_(x)/SiO_(x)/TaN cells has a greater effect on the overallforming characteristics. In these cells HfO_(x) is operable as an oxygenvacancy reservoir. The diffusion of titanium in HfO_(x) will help withwith extracting oxygen ions from HfO_(x) and increase the density ofoxygen vacancy in HfO_(x).

Adding a layer between the electrodes, such that this new layer iscapable of maintaining a stable resistance during the forming process,can also impact the formation process and the resulting performance ofthe cell. This stable resistance layer may be referred to as an embeddedresistor or a current-limiting element. Two sets of ReRAM cells havebeen tested, both having TiN/HfO_(x)/SiO_(x)/TaN. Each cell in one setincluded a 9 kΩ embedded resistor, while each cell in the other setincluded a 116 kΩ embedded resistor The cells with the 9 kΩ embeddedresistors demonstrated more abrupt forming behavior than the cells withthe 116 kΩ embedded resistors. Without being restricted to anyparticular theory, it is believed that the embedded resistor acts as acurrent limited during the forming process thereby preventingover-programming.

Examples of Nonvolatile ReRAM Cells and their Switching Mechanisms

A brief description of ReRAM cells is provided for context and betterunderstanding of various features associated forming and operativelyswitching ReRAM cells. As stated above, a ReRAM cell includes adielectric material formed into a layer exhibiting resistive switchingcharacteristics. A dielectric, which is normally insulating, can be madeto conduct through one or more conductive paths formed after applicationof a voltage. The conductive path formation can arise from differentmechanisms, including defects, metal migration, and other mechanismsfurther described below. Once one or more conductive paths (e.g.,filaments) are formed in the dielectric component of a memory device,these conductive paths may be reset (or broken resulting in a highresistance) or set (or re-formed resulting in a lower resistance) byapplying certain voltages. Without being restricted to any particulartheory, it is believed that resistive switching corresponds to migrationof defects within the resistive switching layer and, in someembodiments, across one interface formed by the resistive switchingvoltage, when a switching voltage is applied to the layer.

FIG. 2A illustrates a schematic representation of ReRAM cell 100including first electrode 102, second electrode 106, and resistiveswitching layer 104 disposed in between first electrode 102 and secondelectrode 106. It should be noted that the “first” and “second”references for electrodes 102 and 106 are used solely fordifferentiation and not to imply any processing order or particularspatial orientation of these electrodes. ReRAM cell 100 may also includeother components, such as an embedded resistor, diode, diffusion barrierlayer, and other components. ReRAM cell 100 is sometimes referred to asa memory element or a memory unit.

First electrode 102 and second electrode 106 may be used as conductivelines within a memory array or other types of devices that ReRAM cell isintegrated into. As such, electrode 102 and 106 are generally formedfrom conductive materials. As stated above, one of the electrodes may bereactive electrode and act as a source and as a reservoir of defects forthe resistive switching layer. That is, defects may travel through aninterface formed by this electrode with the resistive switching layer(i.e., the reactive interface).

Resistive switching layer 104 which may be initially formed from adielectric material and later can be made to conduct through one or moreconductive paths formed within the layer by applying first a formingvoltage and then a switching voltage. To provide this resistiveswitching functionality, resistive switching layer 104 includes aconcentration of electrically active defects 108, which may be at leastpartially provided into the layer during its fabrication. For example,some atoms may be absent from their native structures (i.e., creatingvacancies) and/or additional atoms may be inserted into the nativestructures (i.e., creating interstitial defects). Charge carriers may bealso introduced as dopants, stressing lattices, and other techniques.Regardless of the types all charge carriers are referred to as defects108.

FIG. 2A is a schematic representation of ReRAM cell 100 prior to initialformation of conductive paths, in accordance with some embodiments.Resistive switching layer 104 may include some defects 108. Additionaldefects 108 may be provided within first electrode 102 and may be latertransferred to resistive switching layer 104 during the formation step.In some embodiments, the resistive switching layer 104 has substantiallyno defects prior to forming step and all defects are provided from firstelectrode 102 during forming. Second electrode 106 may or may not haveany defects. It should be noted that regardless of presence or absenceof defects in second electrode 106, substantially no defects areexchanged between second electrode 106 and resistive switching layer 104during forming and/or switching steps.

During the forming step, ReRAM cell 100 changes its structure from theone shown in FIG. 2A to the one shown in FIG. 2B. This changecorresponds to defects 108 being arranged into one or more continuouspaths within resistive switching layer 104 as, for example,schematically illustrated in FIG. 2B. Without being restricted to anyparticular theory, it is believed that defects 108 can be reorientedwithin resistive switching layer 104 to form these conductive paths as,for example, schematically shown in FIG. 2B. Furthermore, some or alldefects 108 forming the conductive paths may enter resistive switchinglayer 104 from first electrode 102. For simplicity, all these phenomenaare collectively referred to as reorientation of defects within ReRAMcell 100. This reorientation of defects 108 occurs when a certainforming voltage is applied to electrodes 102 and 106. In someembodiments, the forming step also conducted at elevated temperatures toenhanced mobility of the defects within ReRAM cell 100.

Resistive switching involves breaking and reforming conductive pathsthrough resistive switching layer 104, i.e., switching between the stateschematically illustrated in FIG. 2B and the state schematicallyillustrated in FIG. 2C. The resistive switching is performed by applyingswitching voltages to electrodes 102 and 106. Depending on magnitude andpolarity of these voltages, conductive path 110 may be broken or formedback again. These voltages may be substantially lower than formingvoltages (i.e., voltages used in the forming step) since much lessmobility of defects is needed during switching steps. For example,hafnium oxide based resistive layers may need about 7 Volts during theirforming but can be switched using voltages less than 4 Volts.

The state of resistive switching layer 104 illustrated in FIG. 2B isreferred to as a low resistance state (LRS), while the state illustratedin FIG. 2C is referred to as a high resistance state (HRS). Theresistance difference between the LRS and HRS is due to different numberand/or conductivity of conductive paths that exists in these states,i.e., resistive switching layer 104 has more conductive paths and/orless resistive conductive paths when it is in the LRS than when it is inthe HRS. It should be noted that resistive switching layer 104 may stillhave some conductive paths while it is in the HRS, but these conductivepaths are fewer and/or more resistive than the ones corresponding to theLRS.

When switching from its LRS to HRS, which is often referred to as areset step, resistive switching layer 104 may release some defects intofirst electrode 102. Furthermore, there may be some mobility of defectswithin resistive switching layer 104. This may lead to thinning and, insome embodiments, breakages of conductive paths as shown in FIG. 2C.Depending on mobility within resistive switching layer 104 and diffusionthrough the interface formed by resistive switching layer 104 and firstelectrode 102, the conductive paths may break closer to the interfacewith second electrode 106, somewhere within resistive switching layer104, or at the interface with first electrode 102. This breakagegenerally does not correspond to complete dispersion of defects formingthese conductive paths and may be a self-limiting process, i.e., theprocess may stop after some initial breakage occurs.

When switching from its HRS to LRS, which is often referred to as a setstep, resistive switching layer 104 may receive some defects from firstelectrode 102. Similar to the reset step described above, there may besome mobility of defects within resistive switching layer 104. This maylead to thickening and, in some embodiments, reforming of conductivepaths as shown in FIG. 2B. In some embodiments, a voltage applied toelectrodes 102 and 106 during the set step has the same polarity as avoltage applied during the reset step. This type of switching isreferred to as unipolar switching. Alternatively, a voltage applied toelectrodes 102 and 106 during the set step may have different polarityas a voltage applied during the reset step. This type of switching isreferred to as bipolar switching. Setting and resetting steps may berepeated multiple times as will now be described with reference to FIGS.2D and 2E.

Specifically, FIG. 2D illustrates a plot of a current passing through aunipolar ReRAM cell as a function of a voltage applied to the ReRAMcell, in accordance with some embodiments. FIG. 2E illustrates the sametype of a plot for a bipolar ReRAM cell, in accordance with someembodiments. The HRS is defined by line 122, while the LRS is defined by124 in both plots. Each of these states is used to represent a differentlogic state, e.g., the HRS may represent logic one (“1”) and LRSrepresenting logic zero (“0”) or vice versa. Therefore, each ReRAM cellthat has two resistance states may be used to store one bit of data. Itshould be noted that some ReRAM cells may have three and even moreresistance states allowing multi-bit storage in the same cell.

The overall manipulation of the ReRAM cell may be divided into a readstep, set step (i.e., turning the cell “ON” by changing from its HRS toLRS), and reset step (i.e., turning the cell “OFF” by changing from itsLRS to HRS). During the read step, the state of the ReRAM cell or, morespecifically, the resistive state of its resistance of resistiveswitching layer can be sensed by applying a sensing voltage to itselectrodes. The sensing voltage is sometimes referred to as a “READ”voltage or simply a reading voltage and indicated as V_(READ) in FIGS.2D and 2E. If the ReRAM cell is in its HRS (represented by line 122 inFIGS. 2D and 2E), the external read and write circuitry connected to theelectrodes will sense the resulting “OFF” current (I_(OFF)) that flowsthrough the ReRAM cell. As stated above, this read step may be performedmultiple times without changing the resistive state (i.e., switching thecell between its HRS and LRS). In the above example, the ReRAM cellshould continue to output the “OFF” current (I_(OFF)) when the readvoltage (V_(READ)) is applied to the electrodes for the second time,third time, and so on.

Continuing with the above example, when it is desired to turn “ON” thecell that is currently in the HRS switch, a set step is performed. Thisstep may use the same read and write circuitry to apply a set voltage(V_(SET)) to the electrodes. Applying the set voltage forms one or moreconductive paths in the resistive switching layer as described abovewith reference to FIGS. 2B and 2C. The switching from the HRS to LRS isindicated by dashed line 126 in FIGS. 2D and 2E. The resistancecharacteristics of the ReRAM cell in its LRS are represented by line124. When the read voltage (V_(READ)) is applied to the electrodes ofthe cell in this state, the external read and write circuitry will sensethe resulting “ON” current (I_(ON)) that flows through the ReRAM cell.Again, this read step may be performed multiple times without switchingthe state of the ReRAM cell.

At some point, it may be desirable to turn “OFF” the ReRAM cell bychanging its state from the LRS to HRS. This step is referred to as areset step and should be distinguished from set step during which theReRAM cell is switched from its HRS to LRS. During the reset step, areset voltage (V_(RESET)) is applied to the ReRAM cell to break thepreviously formed conductive paths in the resistive switching layer.Switching from a LRS to HRS is indicated by dashed line 128. Detectingthe state of the ReRAM cell while it is in its HRS is described above.

Overall, the ReRAM cell may be switched back and forth between its LRSand HRS many times. Read steps may be performed in each of these states(between the switching steps) one or more times or not performed at all.It should be noted that application of set and reset voltages to changeresistance states of the ReRAM cell involves complex mechanisms that arebelieved to involve localized resistive heating as well as mobility ofdefects impacted by both temperature and applied potential.

In some embodiments, the set voltage (V_(SET)) is between about 100 mVand 10V or, more specifically, between about 500 mV and 5V. The lengthof set voltage pulses (t_(SET)) may be less than about 100 millisecondsor, more specifically, less than about 5 milliseconds and even less thanabout 100 nanoseconds. The read voltage (V_(READ)) may be between about0.1 and 0.5 of the write voltage (V_(SET)). In some embodiments, theread currents (I_(ON) and I_(OFF)) are greater than about 1 mA or, morespecifically, is greater than about 5 mA to allow for a fast detectionof the state by reasonably small sense amplifiers. The length of readvoltage pulse (t_(READ)) may be comparable to the length of thecorresponding set voltage pulse (t_(SET)) or may be shorter than thewrite voltage pulse (t_(RESET)). ReRAM cells should be able to cyclebetween LRS and HRS between at least about 10³ times or, morespecifically, at least about 10⁷ times without failure. A data retentiontime (t_(RET)) should be at least about 5 years or, more specifically,at least about 10 years at a thermal stress up to 85° C. and smallelectrical stress, such as a constant application of the read voltage(V_(READ)). Other considerations may include low current leakage, suchas less than about 40 A/cm² measured at 0.5 V per 20 Å of oxidethickness in HRS.

Examples of ReRAM Cells

FIG. 3A illustrates a schematic representation of ReRAM cell 300, inaccordance with some embodiments. ReRAM cell 300 may include first layer310 a operable as an electrode, second layer 306 a operable as aresistive switching layer, third layer 306 b operable as anotherresistive switching layer, and fourth layer 310 b operable as anotherelectrode. Second layer 306 a and third layer 306 b are disposed betweenfirst layer 310 a and fourth layer 310 b as, for example, shown in FIG.3A. In some embodiments, first layer 310 a directly interfaces secondlayer 306 a, while fourth layer 310 b directly interfaces third layer306 b. Furthermore, second layer 306 a may directly interface thirdlayer 306 b as, for example, shown in FIG. 3A. Alternatively, additionallayers may be disposed between second layer 306 a and third layer 306 bas further described below with reference to FIG. 3B. For example, anadditional layer may function as a buffer layer between a resistiveswitching layer and electrode.

First layer 310 a includes a first metal. Fourth layer 310 b includes asecond metal. In some embodiments, the first metal and second metal arethe same. For example, both metals may be tantalum. Alternatively, thefirst metal may be different from the second metal. For example, thefirst metal may be tantalum, while the second metal may be titanium.

In some embodiments, the diffusivity of the first metal into secondlayer 306 a is less than diffusivity of the second metal into thirdlayer 306 b. For example, the diffusion coefficient (at 25° C.) of thefirst metal into second layer 306 a is at least 10 times less than thediffusion coefficient of the second metal into third layer 306 b or even100 times less. The ability of an atom to diffuse into other structuresgenerally depends on its atomic mass. Specifically, lighter atomsgenerally diffuse more readily than heavier atoms. As such, titanium(atomic mass of 47) will diffuse more rapidly than tantalum (atomic massof 180).

The diffusivity of electrode materials into resistive switching layershas a significant impact on forming characteristics of a ReRAM cells. Asdescribed above, rearranging the same two resistive switching layersrelative to the same two electrodes, i.e., TiN/SiO_(x)/HfO_(x)/TaN cellsvs. TiN/HfO_(x)/SiO_(x)/TaN cells, results in difference performance. Inthis example, titanium is more diffusive than tantalum, while siliconoxide has a lower dielectric constant than hafnium oxide. Without beingrestricted to any particular theory, it is believed that the diffusionof titanium into hafnium oxide induces stronger forming characteristicthan diffusion of titanium into silicon oxide.

It should be noted that diffusivity of electrode materials into anadjacent resistive switching layer may be impacted by the potentialapplied to the cell because this potential influences mobility of ions,such as metal ions, within the cell and between different layers. Forexample, an applied potential may drive the positive ions of the firstmetal away from the second layer. A reverse potential may cause thesecond metal of fourth layer 310 b to diffuse into third layer 306 b. Assuch, the potential applied during forming may be used to controldiffusion of materials from electrodes into resistive switching layersand thereby control forming characteristics.

In some embodiments, the first metal is one of tantalum, tungsten, orplatinum. The first layer may also include one or more of nitrogen andsilicon. For example, the first layer may be TaN, TaSiN, WN, WSiN, orcombinations thereof. In some embodiments, the second metal is titanium.The second layer may also include one or more of nitrogen and silicon.For example, the first layer may be TiN or TaSiN.

In some embodiments, the dielectric constant of the material of thirdlayer 306 b is greater than the dielectric constant of the material ofsecond layer 306 a. For example, the dielectric constant of the materialof third layer 306 b may be at least three times greater. The materialof third layer 306 b may be a second oxide, while the materials ofsecond layer 306 a may be a first oxide. The dielectric constant of thesecond oxide may be between about 15 and 30, while the dielectricconstant of the first oxide may be between about 3 and 1. In someembodiments, the first oxide includes silicon oxide, while the secondoxide includes hafnium oxide. The first oxide and the second oxide maybe sub-stoichiometric oxides. For example, the first oxide may beSiO_(x), wherein the second oxide may be HfO_(y), such that the valuesof both X and Y are between 1.7 and 1.9.

In some embodiments, the thickness of second layer 306 a is less thanthe thickness of third layer 306 b. For example, the thickness of secondlayer 306 a may be between about 25% and 75% of the thickness of thirdlayer 306 b or, more specifically, between about 25% and 50%. Thethickness of second layer 306 a may be between about 5 Angstroms and 50Angstroms or, more specifically, between about 10 Angstroms and 30Angstroms. The thickness of third layer 306 b may be between about 10Angstroms and 100 Angstroms or, more specifically, between about 20Angstroms and 50 Angstroms. As described above, the thicknesses ofsecond layer 306 a and third layer 306 b have significant impact onforming characteristics of ReRAM cell 300.

In some embodiments, a combination of second layer 306 a and third layer306 b is operable to reversibly switch between a low resistive state anda high resistive state in response to applying a switching signal toReRAM cell 300 as described above with references to FIGS. 1B-1C andFIGS. 2A and 2B. For example, this combination is operable to formmultiple low resistive states in response to applying different formingsignals to ReRAM cell 300. Applying different forming may involvemaintaining a higher potential at first layer 310 a than at fourth layer310 b as further described below with reference to FIG. 4B.

For example, ReRAM cell 300 may include a fifth layer operable tomaintain a constant resistance when a switching signal is applied toReRAM cell 300 to reversibly switch a combination of second layer 306 aand third layer 306 b between a low resistive state and a high resistivestate. The fifth layer may be referred to as an embedded resistor. Insome embodiments, a layer between second layer 306 a and third layer 306b may serve other functions, e.g., it may be operable as a barrierlayer, as a current steering element, and such.

In some embodiments, a ReRAM cell includes additional components as willnow be described with reference to FIG. 3B. FIG. 3B illustrates ReRAMcell 320 that include first signal line 302, current steering element304, embedded resistor 308, second signal line 312 in addition to firstlayer 310 a, second layer 306 a, third layer 306 b, and fourth layer 310b described above.

In some embodiments, the electrodes may be sufficiently conductive andmay be used as signal lines. Alternatively, signal lines and electrodesmay be separate components as, for example, illustrated in FIG. 3B.First signal line 302 and second signal line 312 provide electricalconnections to ReRAM cell 300. For example, first signal line 302 and/orsecond signal line 312 extend between multiple ReRAM cells, which may becells provided in the same row or the same column of a memory array asfurther described below with reference to FIGS. 5A and 5B. First signalline 302 and second signal line 312 may be made from conductivematerials, such as n-doped polysilicon, p-doped polysilicon, titaniumnitride, ruthenium, iridium, platinum, and tantalum nitride. The signallines may have a thickness of less than about 100 nanometers (nm), suchas less than about 50 nm and even less than about 10 nm. Thinnerelectrodes may be formed using atomic layer deposition (ALD) techniques.

Current steering element 304, if one is present, may be an interveningelectrical component, such as a p-n junction diode, p-i-n diode,transistor, or other similar device disposed between first signal line302 and second signal line 312. As such, current steering element 304 isconnected in series with two layers 306 a and 306 b operable asresistive switching layer. In some embodiments, current steering element304 may include two or more layers of semiconductor materials, such astwo or more doped silicon layers, that are configured to direct the flowof current through the device. Current steering element 304 may be adiode that includes a p-doped silicon layer, an un-doped intrinsiclayer, and an n-doped silicon layer. These layers are not specificallyidentified in FIG. 3B. The overall resistance of current steeringelement 304 may be between about 1 kilo-Ohm and about 100 Mega-Ohm. Theoverall resistance generally depends on the type of current steeringelement 304 and direction of the current flow through current steeringelement 304 (e.g., forward or reversed biased). In some embodiments,current steering element 304 may include one or more nitrides. Forexample, current steering element 304 may be a layer of titaniumnitride. Embedded resistor 308 may be fabricated from any of metaloxides, metal oxynitrides, metal silicon nitrides, metal siliconoxynitrides, metal aluminum nitrides, metal aluminum oxynitrides, metalboron nitrides, or metal boron oxynitrides.

Forming and Switching Examples

FIG. 4 is a process flowchart corresponding to method 400 ofmanipulating a ReRAM cell, in accordance with some embodiments. Variousexamples of ReRAM cells are described above with reference to FIGS. 3Aand 3B. Method 400 may involve applying a first forming signal betweenfirst layer 310 a and fourth layer 310 b during step 402. During thisstep, the resistance of second layer 306 a changes to a first lowresistance, while the resistance of third layer 306 b may remainsubstantially the same. Applying the first forming signal may involveapplying a higher potential to first layer 310 a than to fourth layer310 b. This polarity may depend on diffusivity of materials in firstlayer 310 a and fourth layer 310 b and relative dielectric constants ofsecond layer 306 a and third layer 306 b as described above. Forexample, the first forming signal may initiate soft forming and maycreate one or more conductive paths in second layer 306 a, whichcorresponds to the point 3 in FIG. 2D. For example, a cell having astack of a 30 Angstrom thick hafnium oxide layer and a 10 Angstrom thicksilicon oxide layer may be subjected to a voltage of about 4V andcurrent 10-6 A during this operation. The cell may have a titaniumnitride electrode interfacing the hafnium oxide layer and a tantalumnitride electrode interfacing the silicon oxide layer.

Method 400 may also involve switching the resistance of second layer 306a between its first low resistance state and first high resistance stateduring optional step 404. This step may be referred to as switching witha particular switching level to distinguish it from forming during step402, for example. In general, switching requires a lot less power thanforming because the existing conductive paths are only partially brokenand reformed during the switching. Some aspects of this step aredescribed above with reference to FIGS. 1B and 1C as well as FIGS. 2Aand 2B. The resistance of second layer 306 a in the first low resistancestate may be less than its resistance of that layer in the first highresistance state. For example, as first forming continues, forming ofthe conductive path in second layer 306 a may induce the resistance dropof the cell as shown by the transition from point 3 to point 4 in FIG.2D. It should be noted that switching during step 402 may requiredifferent power (e.g., lower power) than switching during step 408.

Method 400 may involve applying a second forming signal between firstlayer 310 a and fourth layer 310 b during optional step 406. Applyingthe second forming signal changes the resistance of third layer 310 b toa second low resistance. Step 406 may involve applying a higherpotential to first layer 310 a than to fourth layer 310 b. Again, thispolarity may depend on the may depend on diffusivity of materials infirst layer 310 a and fourth layer 310 b and relative dielectricconstants of second layer 306 a and third layer 306 b as describedabove. Furthermore, the polarity during second forming step 406 may bethe same as the polarity during first forming step 402. The resistanceof second layer 306 a may change during step 406 to a third lowresistance such that the third low resistance is less than the first lowresistance of second layer 306 a. For example, the second forming signalmay initiate a forming and a conductive path in third layer 306 b, whichin turn induces resistance drop of that layer as shown by transitionfrom point 4 to point 5 in FIG. 2D.

Method 400 may also involve switching the resistance of third layer 306b between its second low resistance state and second high resistancestate during optional step 408. The resistance of third layer 306 b inthe second low resistance state is less than the resistance of thatlayer in its second high resistance state. Switching the resistance ofthe third layer corresponds to switching the resistance of the secondlayer. Specifically, when second layer 306 a switches from its secondlow resistive state to its second high resistive state, third layer 306b switches from its third low resistive states to its third highresistive states. Likewise, when second layer 306 a switches from itssecond high resistive state to its second low resistive state, thirdlayer 306 b switches from its third high resistive states to its thirdlow resistive states. In the other words, the first switching resistanceof the second layer 306 a paves the way to the second switchingresistance of the third layer 306 b, as shown by two step interfacesfrom point 3 to point 4 and from point 4 to point 5 in FIG. 2D.

Memory Array Examples

A brief description of memory arrays will now be described withreference to FIGS. 5A and 5B to provide better understanding to variousaspects of thermally isolating structures provided adjacent to ReRAMcells and, in some examples, surrounding the ReRAM cells. ReRAM cellsdescribed above may be used in memory devices or larger integratedcircuits (IC) that may take a form of arrays. FIG. 5A illustrates amemory array 500 including nine ReRAM cells 502, in accordance with someembodiments. In general, any number of ReRAM cells may be arranged intoone array. Connections to each ReRAM cell 502 are provided by signallines 504 and 506, which may be arranged orthogonally to each other.ReRAM cells 502 are positioned at crossings of signal lines 504 and 506that typically define boundaries of each ReRAM cell in array 500.

Signal lines 504 and 506 are sometimes referred to as word lines and bitlines. These lines are used to read and write data into each ReRAM cell502 of array 500 by individually connecting ReRAM cells to read andwrite controllers. Individual ReRAM cells 502 or groups of ReRAM cells502 can be addressed by using appropriate sets of signal lines 504 and506. Each ReRAM cell 502 typically includes multiple layers, such asfirst and second electrodes, resistive switching layer, embeddedresistors, embedded current steering elements, and the like, some ofwhich are further described elsewhere in this document. In someembodiments, a ReRAM cell includes multiple resistive switching layersprovided in between a crossing pair of signal lines 504 and 506.

As stated above, various read and write controllers may be used tocontrol switching of ReRAM cells 502. A suitable controller is connectedto ReRAM cells 502 by signal lines 504 and 506 and may be a part of thesame memory device and circuitry. In some embodiments, a read and writecontroller is a separate memory device capable of controlling multiplememory devices each one containing an array of ReRAM cells. Any suitableread and write controller and array layout scheme may be used toconstruct a memory device from multiple ReRAM cells. In someembodiments, other electrical components may be associated with theoverall array 500 or each ReRAM cell 502. For example, to avoid theparasitic-path-problem, i.e., signal bypasses by ReRAM cells in theirlow resistance state (LRS), serial elements with a particularnon-linearity must be added at each node or, more specifically, intoeach element. Depending on the switching scheme of the ReRAM cell, theseelements can be diodes or varistor-type elements with a specific degreeof non-linearity. In the same other embodiments, an array is organizedas an active matrix, in which a transistor is positioned at each nodeor, more specifically, embedded into each cell to decouple the cell ifit is not addressed. This approach significantly reduces crosstalk inthe matrix of the memory device.

In some embodiments, a memory device may include multiple array layersas, for example, illustrated in FIG. 5B. In this example, five sets ofsignal lines 514 a-b and 516 a-c are shared by four ReRAM arrays 512a-c. As with the previous example, each ReRAM array is supported by twosets of signal lines, e.g., array 512 a is supported by 514 a and 516 a.However, middle signal lines 514 a-b and 516 b, each is shared by twosets ReRAM arrays. For example, signal line set 514 a providesconnections to arrays 512 a and 512 b. First and second sets of signallines 516 a and 516 c are only used for making electrical connections toone array. This 3-D arrangement of the memory device should bedistinguished from various 3-D arrangements in each individual ReRAMcell.

CONCLUSION

Although the foregoing examples have been described in some detail forpurposes of clarity of understanding, the invention is not limited tothe details provided. There are many alternative ways of implementingthe invention. The disclosed examples are illustrative and notrestrictive.

What is claimed:
 1. A memory cell comprising: a first layer operable asan electrode, wherein the first layer comprises a first metal; a secondlayer comprising a first oxide, wherein the second layer directlyinterfaces the first layer; a third layer comprising a second oxide,wherein a dielectric constant of the second oxide is greater than adielectric constant of the first oxide; and a fourth layer operable asan electrode; wherein the fourth layer comprises a second metal, whereinthe third layer directly interfaces the fourth layer, wherein adiffusivity of the first metal into the second layer is less than adiffusivity of the second metal into the third layer.
 2. The memory cellof claim 1, wherein a combination of the second layer and the thirdlayer is operable to reversibly switch between a low resistive state anda high resistive state in response to applying a switching signal to thememory cell.
 3. The memory cell of claim 2, wherein the combination ofthe second layer and the third layer is operable to form multiple lowresistive states in response to applying different forming signals tothe memory cell, and wherein the low resistive state is one of themultiple low resistive states.
 4. The memory cell of claim 3, whereinapplying the different forming signals comprises maintaining a higherpotential at the first layer than at the fourth layer.
 5. The memorycell of claim 1, wherein the first oxide comprises silicon oxide, andwherein the second oxide comprises hafnium oxide.
 6. The memory cell ofclaim 1, wherein the first oxide and the second oxide comprisesub-stoichiometric oxides.
 7. The memory cell of claim 6, wherein thefirst oxide comprises SiO_(x), wherein the second oxide comprisesHfO_(y), and wherein values of both X and Y are between 1.7 and 1.9. 8.The memory cell of claim 1, wherein the first metal is one of tantalum,tungsten, or platinum.
 9. The memory cell of claim 1, wherein the firstlayer further comprises one or more of nitrogen or silicon.
 10. Thememory cell of claim 1, wherein the second metal is titanium.
 11. Thememory cell of claim 1, further comprising a fifth layer operable tomaintain a constant resistance when a switching signal is applied to thememory cell.
 12. The memory cell of claim 1, wherein a thickness of thesecond layer is less than a thickness of the third layer.
 13. The memorycell of claim 1, wherein the dielectric constant of the second oxide isat least three times greater than the dielectric constant of the firstoxide.
 14. The memory cell of claim 1, wherein the first metal istantalum, wherein the first layer further comprises nitrogen bound tothe first metal, wherein the first oxide comprises silicon oxide,wherein the second oxide comprises hafnium oxide, wherein the secondmetal is titanium, and wherein the second layer further comprisesnitrogen bound to the second metal.
 15. A method of manipulating amemory cell, the memory cell comprising a first layer operable as anelectrode, a second layer comprising a first oxide, a third layercomprising a second oxide, and a fourth layer operable as an electrode,the method comprising: applying a first forming signal between the firstlayer and the fourth layer, wherein the first layer comprises a firstmetal, wherein the second layer directly interfaces the first layer,wherein the second oxide has a higher dielectric constant than adielectric constant of the first oxide, wherein the fourth layercomprises a second metal, wherein the third layer directly interfacesthe fourth layer, wherein a diffusivity of the first metal into thesecond layer is less than a diffusivity of the second metal into thethird layer, wherein applying the first forming signal changes aresistance of the second layer to a first low resistance while aresistance of the third layer remains substantially the same, andwherein applying the first forming signal comprises applying a higherpotential to the first layer than to the fourth layer.
 16. The method ofclaim 15, further comprising switching the resistance of the secondlayer between the first low resistance and a first high resistance,wherein the resistance of the second layer in the first low resistanceis less than the resistance of the second layer in the first highresistance.
 17. The method of claim 16, further comprising applying asecond forming signal between the first layer and the fourth layer,wherein applying the second forming signal changes a resistance of thethird layer to a second low resistance, wherein applying the secondforming signal comprises applying a higher potential to the first layerthan to the fourth layer.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein applyingthe second forming signal further changes a resistance of the secondlayer to a third low resistance, wherein the third low resistance isless than the first low resistance.
 19. The method of claim 18, furthercomprising switching the resistance of the third layer between thesecond low resistance and a second high resistance, wherein theresistance of the third layer in the second low resistance is less thanthe resistance of the third layer in the second high resistance.
 20. Themethod of claim 19, wherein switching the resistance of the third layerfrom the second low resistance to the second high resistance correspondsto switching the resistance of the second layer from the third lowresistance to a third high resistance corresponds, wherein switching theresistance of the third layer from the second high resistance to thesecond low resistance corresponds to switching the resistance of thesecond layer from the third high resistance and the third low resistancecorresponds, wherein the resistance of the second layer in the third lowresistance is less than the resistance of the second layer in the thirdhigh resistance.